THEME 3: EXAM WRITING SKILLS: Application - Using the knowledge gained in Levels 1 and 2

Bloom’s Taxonomy Level 3: Application

Using the knowledge gained in Levels 1 and 2

The third level of Bloom’s taxonomy has to do with using previously learnt information or knowledge and applying it in familiar as well as new situations to solve problems.

It goes beyond recalling facts (level 1) and showing insight (level 2).

Level 3 learning outcomes require an even higher level of understanding. It is the first step in moving from theory (knowledge) to practice (skill).

Action required:

When asked to apply knowledge, the student is expected to put to use information in response to real-life contexts. Information acquired in levels 1 and 2 has to be used to solve problems and produce results.

Applying knowledge often involves practical skills. Knowing that becomes knowing how as you put theory into practice. That way students become active participants in their own learning.

At this level Therapeutic Massage students become competent in a variety of skills expected of a health professional:

1. Profession-specific skills – massage techniques, stretching, bolstering, assessment skills (observation, palpation etc.), interviewing skills.

2. Business skills – setting up a business.

3. Administrative skills – setting up a practice, establishing recording and filing systems.

4. Professional skills – cognitive skills including critical thinking, problem-solving, planning, strategic thinking, clinical reasoning and pattern recognition.

5. Affective skills – team work, interpersonal communication skills, self-regulation.

6. Work-based skills – computer literacy, professional communication skills, information literacy skills.

7. Academic literacy skills – e.g. doing research, academic writing skills, presentation skills.

Objectives:

The student must be able to:

1. Demonstrate the use of knowledge in new and in familiar situations.

2. Apply rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, and theories to new situations.

Given all the pertinent data, you are required to recognise which set of principles ideas, rules, equations, or methods should be applied.

3. Solve problems

Once the principle is identified, you recall the appropriate knowledge (levels 1 and 2 skills) to solve the problem.

4. Implement solutions to problems

In the next step the solution to the problem is put into effect.

5. Carry out a procedure

Theory and practice also come together when the student is asked to demonstrate an established or correct method of doing something. This can be done either practically, verbally or in written form.

Key words:

Typically questions testing application will start with the following verbs:

Apply
To put to use.

To make use of something to achieve a result

For example:
Apply the principles of intelligent touch as described by Andrade and Clifford in Outcome-Based Massage to illustrate the concept of evidence-based massage therapy.

Apply skin rolling technique.

Practice
To do something, especially exercises, repeatedly in order to improve performance.

Demonstrate

To explain or describe how something works or how to do something.

For example:
Demonstrate the following massage techniques: effleurage, pettrisage and friction.

Demonstrate the correct way of draping for a pregnant patient.

Assess

To examine something in order to judge or evaluate it.
For example:
Visually assess the patient to establish the presenting postural pattern.

Determine
To decide or settle something conclusively. To find out or ascertain something, usually after investigation.
For example:
Predict the expected outcome of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation(PNF) on a muscle.

Predict
To say what is going to happen in the future, often on the basis of present indications or past experience and or knowledge.
For example:

Taking into account the principles of myofascial release technique, predict the results of its application on the fascial and the nervous system.

Relate
To find or show a connection between two or more things.
For example:
Relate the massage techniques listed in Column A to the statements in Column B:

Column A Column B

a. Effleurage 1.Vertical focus

b. Pettrissage 2.Rhythmical kneading

3. Gliding movement

4. Warm up muscle before deeper work

Report
To give information about something that has happened.

To give detailed information about research or an investigation
For example:

Report your findings following a physical assessment of the patient.

Report on the latest findings regarding the benefits of massaging cyclists immediately after a sports event.

Show
To explain, demonstrate, or prove something in a logical way.

For example:

Use examples to show ways in which a patient may use gestures to convey information about areas of discomfort and pain.

Show the attachment sites for the following muscles: …

Sources:
http://www.teachers.ash.org.au/researchskills/dalton.htm

THEME 3: EXAM WRITING SKILLS:- Comprehension - Understanding ideas and concepts

Bloom’s Taxonomy Level 2: Comprehension

Understanding ideas and concepts

The second level of Bloom’s taxonomy has to do with understanding ideas and concepts. It goes beyond simply recalling memorised facts but requires students to show insight and evidence of really grappling with the subject matter to grasp the meaning.

Action required:
In short students are required to UNDERSTAND the information, INTERPRET the facts and TRANSLATE it from one form to another. These learning outcomes go one step beyond simply remembering of material. It requires that the student construct meaning from oral, written, and visual messages through interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.

Objectives:
The student must be able to:

1. Understand subject matter
To explain facts, concepts, terminology, principles etc. related to anatomy, physiology, pathology, pathophysiology, theory of massage therapy, professionalism, ethics, jurisprudence etc.

2. Interpret verbal and written material
To explain the meaning or significance of the subject matter

3. Interpret charts and graphs

4. Interpret verbal, visual and palpatory information
To explain the meaning or significance of observations e.g. during pre and post-treatment consultations with patient, visual assessment and palpation assessment.

5. Predict consequences or effects.
To estimate the future consequences implied in data and to justify methods and procedures. For example: To explain why a particular massage technique will result in lengthening or shortening a muscle.

6. Translate knowledge into new contexts
To apply knowledge gained in lectures on anatomy, physiology, pathology, pathophysiology to massage practice.

Key words:
Typically questions testing comprehension will start with the following verbs:

Compare
To examine two or more things in order to discover similarities and differences between them. (Note that this key word requires you to look at those aspects that are similar AND those that differ)
For example:
Compare the structure and function of the upper limb girdle and the lower limb girdle
Compare the aetiology of the osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis.
Compare the roles and functions of the Allied Health Professions Council of South Africa and a professional association.

Contrast
To compare different things or arrange them in a way that highlights their differences.
For example:
Contrast the signs and symptoms of osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis.
Contrast Type 1 diabetes 1 and Type 2 diabetes.
Contrast the effects of mechanical massage techniques and reflexive massage techniques.

Please note: The next two verbs, distinguish and differentiate are very similar but not identical.

Distinguish
To be aware of or recognise the characteristic feature/s that demonstrate/s that one thing is different from another without going into specific details.
For example:
Different areas of the human body reflect different tactile sensitivity. Distinguish between taboo areas and charged areas on the body.

Differentiate
To indicate precisely and in detail the differences between two or more things.
For example:
Differentiate between mechanical massage techniques and reflexive massage techniques.

Explain
To give an account of something with enough clarity and detail to be understood by somebody else. To make the meaning of something clear.
For example:
Explain why it is important for a massage therapist to establish a personal and a professional support system.
Explain the difference between the terms massage technique and massage therapy.
Explain the effects of rocking on the body.

Classify
To assign things to categories. To order, organise, pigeonhole, arrange or class things.
For example:
Classify the following muscles according to function.
Classify massage techniques according to the effects on the body.

Describe
To give an account of something by giving details of its characteristics. To label or typify something
For example:
Describe the physical and postural changes a massage therapist has to consider when treating a patient during the third trimester of pregnancy.
Describe the structure of a neuron in the human nervous system.

Give examples
For example:
Give examples of superficial reflexive techniques.

Illustrate
To provide explanatory pictures to accompany a printed, spoken, or electronic text.
For example:
Draw a diagram to illustrate the Krebs cycle.
Draw a flow chart to illustrate the process of synaptic transmission.

To clarify or explain something by giving examples or making comparisons.
For example:
Provide examples to illustrate situations when it is appropriate for a massage therapist to terminate a treatment prematurely.

Predict
To say what is going to happen in the future, often on the basis of present indications or past experience.
For example:
Predict the expected outcome of proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation(PNF) on a muscle.

Associate
To connect one thing with another.
For example:
Associate the terms in Column B with the statement in Column A.

Cite
To mention something or somebody as an example to support an argument or help explain what is being said.
For example:
Cite examples of research studies that illustrate the benefits of massage for premature babies.
Cite examples of connective tissue techniques.

Levels of comprehension questions

Questions assessing comprehension may be simple or may require more explanations and interpretation.

For example:
Simple: List the different superficial reflexive techniques and explain the principles of each technique.
Extended: Compare the indications of superficial reflexive techniques with the indications for connective tissue techniques.

Simple: Label the muscles of the rotator cuff.
Extended: Label the muscles of the rotator cuff and list each muscle’s 1) antagonist, 2) agonist and 3) synergist.

Examples of activities testing knowledge

Paraphrase/ Restate in your own words
To restate something using other words, especially in order to make it simpler or shorter but showing understanding of the subject.

Summarise
To make a condensed version. To give a shortened version of something that has been said or written, stating its main points.
For example:
Summarise Per Henrik Ling’s philosophy of massage.

Discuss
To talk about a subject with others. To consider a topic in speaking or writing
For example:
Discuss the importance of self-care for a massage therapist.

Provide a brief outline of …
To give the most prominent or important aspects of something.
For example:
Provide a brief outline of the history of massage from antiquity to the present.

Prepare a flow chart
To illustrate the sequence of events.
For example:
Prepare a flow chart to illustrate the direction of blood flow through the heart.

Sources:
http://www.teachers.ash.org.au/researchskills/dalton.htm
http://www.corrosion-doctors.org

THEME 3: EXAM WRITING SKILLS : Knowledge - Showing mastery of subject matter

Mastery of Subject Matter

The first level of Bloom’s taxonomy has to do with mastering subject matter. Knowledge represents the lowest level of learning outcomes in the cognitive domain. The majority of the short questions in a written assessment is usually pitched at the knowledge level e.g. multiple choice, true or false, select the most appropriate answer, match the terms in column A to the definitions in column B. However this does not mean level 1 questions are simple or undemanding. So do not underestimate them and read the instructions carefully.

Actions required:

Students are required to recognise, observe, remember or recall previously learnt information without necessarily understanding, using, or changing it. You are only required to bring the appropriate information to mind. In order to do that you have to be able to memorize some information.

Objectives:

Questions are asked to test whether you have gained specific information from a lecture or a course. Information may range from specific facts to complete theories.

The student must be able to:

1. Recall knowledge of specific facts.

For example: Per Henrik Ling is associated with 1) Shiatsu 2) Chinese massage 3) Swedish massage 4) Shamanic massage

2. Recall knowledge of common terms / terminology.

For example: Have you memorized the names and actions of specific muscles? Do you know the signs and symptoms of TB? Do you know the difference between transference and counter-transference?

3. Recall knowledge of the main ideas, concepts and principles.

For example: Can you define the term therapeutic? And informed consent? What about proprioception?

4. Recall knowledge of methods and procedures.

For example: Do you know the steps required to deal with bodily fluid spilt in the therapy room?

5. Recall ways and means of dealing with specifics (conventions, trends and sequences, classifications and categories, criteria, methodology).

For example: Do the know how to write up a bibliography? Have you memorized the different types of connective tissue?

6. Give an outline of a topic

For example: Can you name the different parts of the autonomic nervous system?

Key words:

Typically questions testing knowledge will start with the following verbs:

Name

To provide the word, term, or phrase by which something is known and distinguished from other things.

For example:

Name the muscles of the rotator cuff.

Name three introductory techniques that a massage therapist can employ.

Identify

To recognise somebody or something and to be able to say who or what he, she, or it is. To consider two or more things as being entirely or essentially the same.

For example:

Identify the muscles of the rotator cuff.

List

To arrange a series of related words, names, numbers, or other items one after the other.

For example:

List three reasons why a massage therapist uses a lubricant.

List the procedure to follow when blood or any other bodily fluid has been spilt in the therapy room.

List four possible survival mechanisms that abused patients might present with.

Enumerate

To name a number of things on a list one by one.

For example:

Enumerate the muscles of the rotator cuff.

Enumerate five basic principles of draping.

Locate

To find or pinpoint where something is.

For example:

Locate the muscles of the rotator cuff on the diagram provided / by pointing to the muscle’s location on the human body.

Select

To choose something from among several others. The types of questions that fall under this category include:

Underline the correct word or phrase.

For example:

The Allied Health Professional Council issues registration numbers OR practice numbers OR licence numbers to health care workers.

Depth of pressure is the result of the use of upper body strength OR leverage and leaning on the body.

Multiple choice questions - you have to select the appropriate answer from the several options provided.

For example:

The legal age for a patient to consent to a Therapeutic Massage treatment, is: 1) 14 years 2) 16 years 3) 18 years 4) 21 years

In medical terminology, the prefix poly- means around OR many OR surrounding.

Recall

To remember something or bring something back to mind.

For example:

Recall the muscles of the rotator cuff.

The South African primary health care system is based on the following system: 1) biomedical 2) alternative 3) allopathic 4) biopsychosocial

Practice numbers to health care workers is issued by: 1) Board of Health Care Funders 2) Medicine Control Board 3) Allied Health Professional Council 4) Massage Therapy Association

Describe

To give an account of something by giving details of its characteristics.

For example:

Describe the rotator cuff.

Describe the emotional benefits of touch.

Describe the procedure that a massage therapist has to follow when cleaning up body fluid spills such as vomit and blood from massage bed and floor.

Define

To state or describe something exactly. To identify something by a distinctive characteristic, quality or feature. To give the precise meaning of a word or expression.

For example:

Define professional touch.

Define the term entrainment.

Define myocardial infarction.

Label

To attach a label to something as identification or to describe something using a particular word or phrase.

For example:

Label the bones identified in the diagram.

Match

To find something that makes a suitable accompaniment.

For example:

Match the term with the definition that best describes it.

Record

To put something into a form in which it can be stored e.g. to write something down, save on a computer or film it. To make a note of something for future reference.

For example:

After completing the visual assessment of the patient, record you observations.

(Note that the question does not require you to interpret the information but merely to write down what it is that you had seen.)

State

To express something in spoken or written words. To assert, articulate or express something.

For example:

State why a massage therapist is required to get informed consent from a patient.

State a function of the thyroid gland.

Levels of knowledge questions

As stated before, knowledge questions can be simple or may require more detail.

For example:

Simple: Label the muscles of the rotator cuff.

Extended: Label the muscles of the rotator cuff and list each muscle 1) antagonist, 2) agonist and 3) synergist.

Simple: True or False? The terms alternative health therapies and complementary health therapies can be used interchangeably

Extended: Is the statement true or false and justify your answer? The terms alternative health therapies and complementary health therapies can be used interchangeably

Simple: True or False? The terms alternative health therapies and complementary health therapies can be used interchangeably

Extended: Is the statement true or false? Justify your answer. The terms alternative health therapies and complementary health therapies can be used interchangeably

Examples of activities testing knowledge

For example:

Make a list of the main events in the history of massage as a profession in the West.
Make a timeline of events indicating the history of massage since antiquity.
Make a chart showing the flow of blood through the heart.

Sources:

http://www.teachers.ash.org.au

http://www.corrosion-doctors.org

THEME 3: EXAM WRITING SKILLS - Levels of Knowledge

Students often complain that although they are sure that they knew the answer to an exam question, the examiner awarded them only average or very low marks.

On the other hand, lecturers remark that students forfeit marks because they do not answer what is asked in an assessment.

Yes, they say, students manage to fill the blank spaces with words and sentences but the answers do not reach the set outcome. Students might demonstrate content knowledge but they do not follow the instructions as stated in the question. Students rather fixate on WHAT they need to answer (information) and do not pay attention to HOW they are required to answer it (format or structure).

Before tackling any question or assignment, it is as important to make sure you know exactly HOW you are supposed to answer a question as it is to know WHAT subject knowledge the question / assignment wants to assess.

Why is it Important to Pay Attention to the Structure or Format of a Question?

It is essential that you know what the format or structure the answer should be presented in because it:
1. Guides you towards the expected outcome or the objective you are expected to reach.
2. Assists you in allocating just enough, not too much and not too little time to answering a question. For example: It takes a lot less time to list the types of muscles compared to describing the form and function of each muscle.
3. Tells you what type of question you are dealing with. Different types of questions assess different levels of knowledge.

Levels of Knowledge

There exists a number of classifications or taxonomies that categorize different levels of knowledge. A taxonomy of learning behaviours classify the goals that need to be achieved in the learning process.

One of the best known classifications is Bloom’s taxonomy. In the 1950s a committee led by educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom, identified three domains of educational activities namely:

1. Cognitive or mental areas – knowledge and development of intellectual skills.

2. Affective or emotional areas - attitudes

3. Psychomotor or manual or physical skills - practical skills.

After the each training session or at the end of the course, the student should have acquired a combination of new general and profession-specific skills, knowledge, and attitudes.

For example a massage therapy student will have to demonstrate:
1. Cognitive skills such as knowledge of anatomy and physiology, massage, nutrition etc.
2. Attitudes such as professionalism and ethical behaviour gained through the study and practice of counselling, jurisprudence, community service and academic literacy etc.
3. Skills including massage skills, business skills, computer skills, research skills, professional writing skills etc.

Cognitive Domain

The cognitive domain involving knowledge and the development of mental or intellectual skills, consists of six major categories. It starts with the simplest behaviour and concrete levels of thinking and moves to the most complex and abstract levels of thinking. The one category must be mastered before the next one can take place.

Bloom’s categories are: 1)

1. Knowledge - remembering or recognising something previously encountered without necessarily understanding, using, or changing it.

2. Comprehension - understanding the material being communicated without necessarily relating it to anything else.

3. Application - using a general concept to solve a particular problem.

4. Analysis - breaking something down into parts.

5. Synthesis - creating something new by combining different ideas.

6. Evaluation - judging the value of materials or methods as they might be applied in a particular situation.

Different levels of knowledge are assessed by means of different types questions and as explained earlier the answer to each type of question requires a specific structure. Each of these levels of knowledge will be discussed in detail in future posts.

How do You Know which Format to Use for a Particular Question?

Usually the clue can be found in the first word of the question.

A question typically starts with a verb, an action word. It tells you what to do. It is therefore important to understand the exact meaning of the verbs used in a question. Is explain the same as describe? Is separate the same as categorize?

In the next post we will look at Level 1 of the cognitive domain in detail.

1) Teacher Education http://educ-reality.com/benjamin-bloom-and-his-taxonomy/