THEME 1 ACADEMIC & PROFESSIONAL LITERACY: Communication For Science ISBN-10: 0195781503

Communication for Science, is one of the books in the Oxford University Press Communication Series. It is published specifically for undergraduate South African students and focuses on their language and learning needs.

It has proven useful as a resource to establish academic literacy skills in Therapeutic Massage training before. The book is available from most major academic bookshops. It can also be ordered directly from the publishers.

From Oxford University Press Southern Africa website:

Author: J. Wright, G. Hangone
Price: R199.95
ISBN-10: 0195781503
ISBN-13: 9780195781502
Publication date: January 2003
Origin: OUP Southern Africa
Binding: Paperback

Description
No matter what field of expertise they choose to master, students know that the abilities to read an article well and comprehend the main points, to present a dynamic and effective oral report, and to work with groups, are essential to their success. The same skills are essential to every individual in a professional environment.

Communication for Science, one of the books in a Communication Series published for undergraduate South African students, has been extensively trialled in a technikon environment, with specific focus on students language and learning needs. In course-specific and general discussion and exercises, it takes a practical look at topics including communicating in a business environment, reading and writing reports, holding effective meetings, carrying out research, using a library and understanding a catalogue system, and compiling a bibliography.

Communication for Science provides a springboard to academic achievement by equipping students with these tools.

Contents
1. Introduction
2. Written Assignments
3. Reading and Vocabulary
4. Oral Presentations
5. Workplace Communication

THEME 1 ACADEMIC & PROFESSIONAL LITERACY: Expanding Your Academic Vocabulary

One of the ways in which humans express their thoughts, ideas, emotions etc. is through language whether oral or written. Language then can be described as a system of communication that encodes and decodes information. Each language, including academic language, has its own set of conventions, vocabulary, grammar, syntax.

Language as symbols

Language consists of a set of symbols that members of a group learn to interpret in order to communicate with one another. We refer to the building blocks of a language, namely words as symbols because it only represents the actual object or experience. When words are transcribed into written language symbols such as hieroglyphics, the alphabet, or signs, are used.

Vocabulary

The collection of words used by a particular person is called his or her vocabulary.

Typically someone’s vocabulary does not represent all the words of that particular language. We distinguish between a person’s active vocabulary and his passive vocabulary. If you are able to use the word even though you can not clearly explain it or you know the meaning, its use and its definition, we say it forms part of your active vocabulary.

Words that are considered part of your passive vocabulary would be:

* the ones you have heard of but you cannot define as well as

* the ones you recognise but only because you can infer its meaning from the context or the tone of voice.

Vocabulary and reasoning

In Western philosophy, the system of thought that underlies academic and scientific language, the spoken and written word is closely associated with our mental faculties, reason or logic. In Ancient Greek philosophical terminology, the word logos was used for both language and for reason. Linguistic vocabulary is synonymous with thinking vocabulary. 2)

Vocabulary and communication

The more extensive your vocabulary, the better you are able to express yourself and the more effective you will be able to communicate with others. Very often and sometimes mistakenly, people are judged based on their vocabulary. Any foreign person who has just started learning a new language will tell you that they are often considered uneducated or stupid because they are not yet able to express themselves adequately. They don’t necessarily lack the mental capacity, they lack the words to express it. The same often applies to students coming to grips with academic language.

Learning and Vocabulary

A lot of research has been done into the relationship between students’ academic progress and their academic vocabulary ability.

It is well known that a positive correlation exists between academic background knowledge or long term memory and academic achievement. Students who have a large amount of academic background knowledge about a topic learn new information on the same subject easier and quicker than those who do not. 3)

The reason is that the brain looks for places to file or categorize information. The broader the background knowledge the more the brain extracts information from learning content and categorizes this information. 4) For information to be stored in the long term memory to create background knowledge, it has to find a category in the brain to link it to. The more categories exist the easier the linking process is.

How is this linked to vocabulary? New research has shown that academic vocabulary is one of the strongest indicators of how well students will learn subject area content. 5) As academic knowledge consists segments of information, concepts and ideas that are represented by words and phrases, one can conclude that the better your vocabulary, the more categories are available in your brain and the better you are able to learn.

Vocabulary development is a vital part of all content learning. “If you don't have vocabulary for a content area, you don't know the content area ..” 6)

Vocabulary and Reading

Another important reason for increasing your vocabulary is that vocabulary size has been directly linked to reading comprehension. 7)

Vocabulary learning tips

This list of ten strategies to improve your vocabulary has been adapted from the list provided on the Sheppard Software website. 8) For the full article visit http://www.sheppardsoftware.com/vocabulary_tips.htm

1. Vocabulary Learning Tip One: Read, Read, Read! Most vocabulary words are learned from context. The more words you're exposed to, the better vocabulary you will have. While you read, pay close attention to words you don't know. First, try to figure out their meanings from context. Then look the words up. Read and listen to challenging material so that you'll be exposed to many new words.

2. Vocabulary Learning Tip Two: Improve your context skills. Research shows that the vast majority of words are learned from context. To improve your context skills pay close attention to how words are used.

3. Vocabulary Learning Tip Three: Practice, practice, practice. Learning a word won't help very much if you promptly forget it. Research shows that it takes from 10 to 20 repetitions to really make a word part of your vocabulary. It helps to write the word - both the definition and a sentence you make up using the word - perhaps on an index card that can later be reviewed. As soon as you learn a new word, start using it.

4. Vocabulary Learning Tip Four: Make up as many associations and connections as possible. Say the word aloud to activate your auditory memory. Relate the word to words you already know. For example, the word LEVATOR SCAPULAE refers to the muscle that attaches to the scapula and the skull and its purpose is to lift the shoulder or to put it in scientific language to elevate the shoulder. You can remember LEVATOR SCAPULAE by linking the first part of the muscle name to levitate or ‘to go higher’. You can also link the word LEVATOR to elevate in the same way as an elevator in American English moves up a building’s lift shaft. Or imagine the magician using magic tricks to get his supine assistant to levitate.

5. Vocabulary Learning Tip Five: Use mnemonics (memory tricks). For example, for the bones of the lower limb: “Help five police to find ten missing prisoners.” (hip, femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges). 9) Such funny little word pictures will help you remember what words mean, AND they are fun to make up. Also, find out which learning style suits you best. Everyone learns differently!

6. Vocabulary Learning Tip Six: Get in the habit of looking up words you don't know. If you have a dictionary programme on your computer, keep it open and handy.

7. Vocabulary Learning Tip Seven: Play with words. Play Scrabble, Boggle, and do crossword puzzles. These and other word games are available for the computer, so you are not dependent on a partner to play. Also, try out the Franklin Electronic Dictionary that features built-in word games.

8. Vocabulary Learning Tip Eight: Use vocabulary lists. There are also many interesting word sites on the Internet, many of which will send you a word a day by email.

9. Vocabulary Learning Tip Nine: Take vocabulary tests. Playing games, such as the ones on www.sheppardsoftware.com, that test your knowledge will help you learn new words and also let you know how much progress you're making.

10. Vocabulary Learning Tip Ten: Get excited about words! Come to appreciate the sometimes-subtle differences between them. Do you know the difference between something that denotes something else and something that connotes something else? If not, go look it up. Learn to say what you really mean and discover the joys of being able to express yourself in writing. Your future can depend on how rich your vocabulary is. A good vocabulary will make a difference to your academic success. It will also determine the quality of your communication. Let building your vocabulary be a lifelong proposition. Until you have a word for something, it does not exist for you. Name it, and you have made your reality richer.

References:

1. Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language
2. Stahl, Steven A. Vocabulary Development. Cambridge: Brookline Books, 1999. p. 3. "The Cognitive Foundations of Learning to Read: A Framework", Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, p. 14.
3. ASCD http://www.ascd.org and Marzano, Robert J. Building Background Knowledge for Academic Achievement.
4. Eric Jensen, Brain Based Learning
5. ASCD http://www.ascd.org a
6. http://www.tulsaschools.org/employees/tr/TeacherHandbook_06-07/BuildingAcademicVocab.pdf
7. Stahl, Steven A. Vocabulary Development. Cambridge: Brookline Books, 1999. p. 3. "The Cognitive Foundations of Learning to Read: A Framework", Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, p. 14.
8. Sheppard Software http://www.sheppardsoftware.com/vocabulary_tips.htm
9. Mnemonics Guide: http://www.eudesign.com/mnems/bones.htm

THEME 1 ACADEMIC & PROFESSIONAL LITERACY: Use It and Master It - Strategies to Develop Professional Language

We all know the saying about the body: If you don't use it you lose it. Well the same applies to language skills. The best way to learn a language is to use it as often as possible.

This applies to any language whether it is Xhosa or Finnish or the language of anatomy and physiology.

Here are a few general strategies to follow to become fluent in the language of your profession:

1. Practise talking and writing using the formal or academic register whenever appropriate. Use it when doing a presentation in class, when writing up a case history, when writing an essay even when you are explaining some aspect of the work to a class mate.

2. Use language accurately and precisely. Using the correct grammar and spelling not only makes a better impression it also helps to clarify your reasoning.

3. Use the correct scientific vocabulary and terminology e.g. gastrocnemius rather than calf muscle. That way you are not only learning the language but you are also learning through language.

4. Make sure you understand the precise meaning of each word and phrase. If you are not sure that you know EXACTLY what the word means, consult a dictionary or the glossaries in your text books.

5. Develop your own dictionary of useful and often-used scientific terms and add new words, terms and phrases as they arise or are introduced.

6. Be aware that in scientific and academic language words may have different meanings to everyday use. For example when using the word argument in academic language we do mean to have a quarrel. Rather it refers to your line of reasoning.

7. Also note that scientific terms have different meanings in different contexts. For example when the word manipulation is used in massage it has a very different meaning to when a psychologist uses the word.

8. Write scientific definitions and concepts in your own words or draw or collect visual images to help improve your understanding of the terms encountered.

9. If you are a second-language English speaker, look up the meaning of the words and concepts in your own language also. Education theory shows that it is easier to grasp abstract concepts in ones home language.

10. Clarify and consolidate your ideas by talking to others about the topics you are studying. One of the best ways of learning is by teaching. Make sure you use professional language so that you also get used to the sound and rhythm.

11. “Think and speak’ the words and phrases when applying theory to practice. For example identify the muscles while practising massage skills or explain to yourself exactly what technique you are using, why you have selected it and what you want to achieve by using it. Not only will this help you to combine theory and practice, you will also get used to formulating your ideas using the appropriate language.

THEME 1 ACADEMIC & PROFESSIONAL LITERACY: Language for Thinking and Meaning

In its broadest sense, literacy involves using language for thinking and meaning. It is helpful to understand literacy as having three different aspects (Green 1996).

Operational literacy is competency in the language, especially written language.

Cultural literacy is learning a discourse or culture: how to communicate in the language of a specific group of people or a subject. Understanding what to say and how to say it in Science, or understanding how to read a poem well in English, are two examples. Each subject is like a different country with a different culture. The culture of the Bachelor of Education differs from that of the Bachelor of Economics.

Critical literacy is understanding how knowledge is made and how it can be transformed. Reading newspapers in an informed and critical fashion is an example. Knowing how to look for beliefs and assumptions behind written texts is another.

Academic literacy is a combination of all three aspects.

Green, B. 1999, 'The new literacy challenge', Literacy Learning: Secondary Thoughts, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 36-46.

Source: Academic Literacy, University of New England, Australia

THEME 1 ACADEMIC & PROFESSIONAL LITERACY: Language Learning & Learning Through Language

So you chose to study massage because you like using your hands and you want to help people.

Yet now you find that it is the reading and writing that is tripping you up. It is as if you are required to learn a foreign language. It may sound like English but definitely not the English you and your friends speak.

Well you are absolutely right. Studying massage is about getting to know the human anatomy and physiology. And yes it is about mastering different massage techniques and styles. But it is also about learning a new language.

In fact acquiring any new competence, from hairdressing to psychology, from motor mechanics to biochemistry, involves learning the language of that particular job or profession. So in addition to the theoretical content and the skills we need to practice as massage therapists, we also have to learn the language of massage therapy.

As a health professional you will be required to communicate with a variety of different groups. It is important that we should be able to make ourselves understood but also that we understand others.

1. Communicating with the patient - We use spoken and written languages when interviewing a patient and when explaining a procedure to a patient and we use it in such a way that we enable the patient to give informed consent.

2. Communicating with the public - It is through language that we introduce massage to the wider community in presentations, articles, promotional material and press releases.

3. Communicating with colleagues – Massage therapy, being a health profession, means that we share the same lingo as other health professionals. We all ‘speak’ the language of anatomy, physiology and pathology. But we also share a particular vocabulary and terminology with other physical therapies such as physiotherapy, chiropractics and osteopathy.

4. Communicating officially – From time to time a massage therapist will be required to write official reports for organisations and institutions that are not related to the health profession e.g. a patient wants to claim from the Road Accident Fund and needs you to explain why massage is the treatment of choice.

5. Communicating the massage knowledge base - Language is also the tool therapists would use on the road of lifelong learning and continued professional development. The therapist’s ability to communicate his or her knowledge in the form of presentations, research reports and journal articles is as important as the knowledge base itself.

So you can see that although massage therapy is largely a knowledge and skills-based profession, it is important that a therapist also develops his or her language skills. Research has shown that students whose language skills are sub-standard tend to be weak in science subjects.

Language is usually classified according to its origin:

1. natural or everyday language

2. professional language (special purpose subsets of natural language)

3. symbolic language (signs and symbols e.g. the yield sign, body language and gesturing, visual language)

This classification is also related to linguistic registers.

What is a linguistic register?

Linguistic registers indicate the level of formality and form that we adopt when communicating in different situations. For example: we use a different linguistic register during a job interview as compared to asking a friend a favour. Also the register we adopt when speaking to a patient will differ from the one used when chatting to pals in a pub. The use of the appropriate register thus depends on the audience, the topic, and the purpose for the communication Learners as well as professionals must know how and when to move from one register to the next.

Joos (1961) describes five styles in spoken English:

1.Frozen – for example printed unchanging language such as Biblical quotations.

2.Consultative – Usually it is a two-way conversation e.g. talking to a boss/supervisor/teacher, lawyer, doctor, counsellor. It often involves asking for assistance.

3. Casual - Talking with friends often in slang to create an in-group, writing drafts before the formal draft (because it “gets the information out” on the paper). The word choice is general and the conversation is dependent upon non-verbal assists e.g. gesturing, facial expressions etc. Interruptions are common.

4. Intimate - Private communication with body language as important or more important than words. It is the language of lovers and people who know one another very well.

5.Formal or academic – This language register is characterised by one-way participation and no interruptions. It uses specific words and definitions, adheres strictly to grammar, uses complete sentence structure and follows particular language and layout rules. This is the standard for work, school, and business, used in interviews, academic language in the classroom (lectures, instruction) and public speaking. Formal registers are usually characterized by a set of specialised and technical vocabulary that is used by a specific occupations or professional group for particular purposes.

Just as we do not use the same language when speaking to our friends and to elderly aunts and uncles, a massage therapist has to adapt to his or her audience. In other words we have to select the most appropriate linguistic register for the situation. When speaking to patients a combination of consultative and formal registers is suitable – not too casual but also not to prim.

It takes confidence and experience to be an engaging public speaker or writer. The same applies to a newly qualified massage therapist learning over time to develop the right balance of professionalism and empathy with patients.

On the other hand when talking or writing to colleagues, when referring a patient, in peer group discussions, journal articles and when disseminating research findings, a massage therapist adopts a formal linguistic register. He or she uses professional language.

What is professional language?

As we said earlier, acquiring a new competence such as massage therapy also involves learning the language of that particular job or profession. Professional language is used by a group or profession and often consists of terminology, concepts and definitions that are not necessarily understood or used by other people.

So besides needing basic language and composition skills, a massage therapy learner also has to learn the shared language of the group or as it is called in academic circles, the discourse community. He or she also has to learn to select selecting the appropriate register or genre for different audiences.

Professional language is sometimes disapprovingly referred to as jargon and health professionals in particular are often accused of using unfamiliar words and phrases when speaking to patients. This not only alienates them but can also be an impediment to good health care. It is clear that is such a case, the therapist has selected the incorrect linguistic register and obviously using jargon should be avoided without compromising accuracy and a professional demeanour.

As said before, one of the reason why professional language can be difficult to understand is the specific word usage and terminology used. In the health care domain it is based on scientific language.

Where do massage therapists learn to use professional language?

The process doesn’t start the day you receive you registration number telling you that you can start practising.

No, the acquiring professional language starts the day you enroll for a massage therapy course. That is because professional language is the same as academic language. It is the language used by students to do their course work. It is used in textbooks, in lectures and it is the language that students are expected to use when doing reports and written assessments. Academic writing is also based on scientific language.

What is scientific language?

Science has a language of its own and this language has particular rules of composition and expression. A lot of the scientific names used are based on Latin and some Greek. The function of scientific language is to create a universal language to:

* Give names to subjects, objects, processes etc. Just think of all the muscle names, the pathologies etc.

* Communicate ideas

* Report observations

* Formulate theories

* Frame and investigate processes

* Set boundaries for meaning that are exact and accurate.

What are the characteristics of scientific language?

Scientific language and academic language share the same characteristics. It:

* Is objective, measured and fair and tends to be impersonal

* Is precise, explicit and consistent.

* Uses and introduces technical words with specific meanings.

* Gives scientific meaning to words which may have a different usage in everyday language.

* Is a vehicle for logical argumentation or reasoning.

* Is formal because it is more precise and stable.

* Is more suitable for the expression of complex ideas.

* Assumes that the listener / reader has background knowledge of the topic. But if that is not the case, all information embedded in the text, has to be revealed upfront.

* Is cautious and responsible.

* Builds arguments based on the strength of evidence available and acknowledges all sources of information. Strict referencing rules apply.

* Is analytical and critical.

* Is explanatory rather than descriptive.

* Follows established conventions.

Why do students have to master academic/scientific language?

Students need to master academic language:

1. to assimilate the material presented to them in anatomy, physiology and pathology modules;

2. to communicate effectively in a professional way and

3. to think in a scientific way.

This blog wants to serve as complementary resource for students of massage therapy to contribute to your academic and professional success and ultimate assimilation into the profession of Therapeutic Massage Therapy in South Africa.

In Part 2 of this section on Learning language and learning through language, we look at ways to master academic writing.